https://wodolei.ru/catalog/unitazy/
Before going to school children may go to nursery schools or kindergartens. At the age of six children st
art going to school. First they go to primary school where they learn to read, write and count. Primary school finishes in the 3-rd form. Then pupils go to secondary school. After the 9-th form pupils take school exams and get a school certificate. After
it they can choose either to stay at school or go to a college to get a profession. Most pupils stay at school and finish it with a school diploma which allows them to enter an institution of higher education.
After finishing school pupils can go on to h
igher education. There are a lot of institutes and universities in Russia. They offer various departments which an entrant can choose according to his or her abilities. It is difficult to enter an institute. Entrants should attend university courses and t
h
en pass entrance exams. Nowadays a new examination system is being introduced. The so-called General State Exam allows pupils to enter any Russian university if they get good and excellent marks for it. This system hasn't been settled yet, but in some reg
ions of Russia it works already. Pupils take this examination after the 11-th form.
Students in Russian universities usually have five years of studies. At the end of every semester students have an examination session and take exams. If students pass th
e exams well they get a scholarship paid by the government. In most universities and institutes graduates have to pass State exams and defend their final project. After graduating from an institution of higher education they can continue studies and enter
a post-graduate school. After defending a dissertation they get a Master's Degree. In medical universities students usually study for 6 years.
=================================
Education in Russian Federation (2)
In Russian Federation children begin goi
ng to school at the age of seven. First they study at the elementary school. It lasts three or four years. At the elementary school children get the elementary education, they learn to read, write and count. From the fifth form the secondary education beg
i
ns. Children begin to learn different subjects, such as literature, chemistry, physics, biology, computing, foreign languages and so on. The nine-year secondary education is compulsory in our country, but after completing the nine-year schooling pupils fa
c
e the first serious decision in their lives. They have to decide either to continue their studies in the tenth and eleventh forms at a general secondary school, or to transfer to specialized colleges, that is to say, choose a particular career. Colleges g
i
ve young people a secondary education plus trade training. This means that after finishing a college they are educated and financially independent, able to go straight to a job. Except general secondary schools there are a lot of specialized schools, wher
e more attention is paid to a particular subject, mostly to a foreign language. Besides, there are many private schools now, where the education is not free of charge»
After finishing school or college young people may enter institute or university to get the higher education. After finishing the fourth course they get the bachelor's degree and after graduating from the postgraduate course Ч
the master's degree. To study is not an easy thing, of course, but nowadays it is quite necessary to be highly skilled and educated specialist.
Russian Sports
There are many popular kinds of sport in Russia. They are: hockey, skating, figure skating, skiing, football, swimming, running, judo and others. There are many stadiums, sport clubs, gyms and swimming-pools now
. Many national and international matches and championships take place in Russia. The most important sports events are broadcast live from the stadiums. Numerous people come to watch the games, others prefer to do this at home watching special sports chan
nels.
Water kinds of sport are popular in our country. These include swimming, diving, water skiing and boating. Fishing is very popular in all parts of Russia, too.
Football is one of the most popular sports in the country. There are several football clubs and football fans not only come to watch matches, but play football themselves.
Hockey is very popular, too.
Russia is famous for its chess players, tennis players and figure-skaters. At the 2006 Turin Olympic Games our country won several gold
medals in figure skating.
Physical education is one of the main subjects in Russian schools now. During the lessons pupils play different sports games, take part in school, district and city sports competitions.
Such sports activities as bowling and billiards have become very popular with the Russians, especially young ones. Such indoor games are played in sports centres and clubs.
Even though many Russian people do not have time for going in for sport, they still find some hours to do sports activities.
Russia
The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies about one seventh of the earth's surface. Russia covers the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia. Its total area is about 17 million square kilometer
s. The country is washed by 12 seas of 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic and the Atlantic. In the south Russia borders on China, Mongolia, Korea, Kazakhstan, Georgia and Azerbaijan. In the west it borders on Norway, Finland, the Baltic States, Belorussia,
and the Ukraine. It also has a sea border with the USA.
The population of Russia is 145.5 million people. 83 per cent are Russians. There are 1030 towns and cities in Russia. Moscow is the capital and the biggest city with a population of about 9 milli
on people.
There is hardly a country in the world where such a variety of scenery and vegetation can be found. We have steppes in the south, plains and forests in the central region, tundra and taiga in the north, highlands and deserts in the east.
Russia is located on two plains. They are the Great Russian Plain and the West Siberian Lowland. There are several moun¬
tain chains on the territory of the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. The largest mountain chain, the Urals, separates Europe from Asia.
Russia is a land of long rivers and deep lakes. There are over two million rivers in our country. The broad Volga River system is of great historic, economic and cultural importance to the country. It became the cradle of such anci
ent towns as Vladimir, Tver, Yaroslavl, Kazan, and Nizhny Novgorod. Volga is Europe's biggest river. It runs into the Caspian Sea which is in fact the largest lake in the world. The main Siberian rivers Ч the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena Ч
flow from south to north. The Amur in the Par East flows into the Pacific Ocean.
Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world's deepest lake (1600 metres) is Lake Baikal. It is much smaller than the Baltic I Sea, but there is much more water in it than in the Baltic Se
a. The water in the lake is so clear that if you look down you can count the stones on the bottom.
Russia has one sixth of the world's forests. They are concen¬trated in the European north of the country, in Siberia and m the Far East.
Over the vast
territory of the country there are various types of climate, from arctic in the north to subtropical in the south. But the temperate zone with four seasons prevails. Winters are cold and windy with a lot of snow. Summers are rather hot and dry. In Siberia
the temperature in winter falls to 50 degrees below zero. The coldest registered temperature was 70 degrees.
The animal world in the north includes the walrus, the seal, the polar bear and the polar fox. In the central zone there are a lot of wolves and
foxes, hares and squirrels. The famous Russian furs come from the sable, mink and ermine. The brown bear of the Russian forests is a kind of symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral res
ources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamonds come from Siberia.
The Russian Federation is a Presidential Republic. The federal government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial.
The legislative powers are exercised by the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers: the Council of Federation and the State Duma. The executive power belongs to the government which is headed by the Prime Minister. The judicial branch is represente
d by the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and regional courts. All three branches are controlled by the President.
Today the flag of Russia is a three-coloured banner. The hymn of Russia is written by A. Alexandrov and S. Mikhalkov. A new national
emblem is the two-headed eagle, the most ancient symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamon
ds come from Siberia.
There are a lot of opportunities for our country to become one of the leading countries in the world. IТ
m sure that we, the younger generation, can do a lot to make Russia as strong and powerful as she used to be.
Russia Ч a Market-oriented Economy ( Рос
сия - страна
с рыночной
экономикой )
The assertion that Russia is a market-oriented economy has evoked doubt in the minds of many. The European Commission, Economics Ministers in various countries, and indeed numerous Russian econo
mists themselves, have resisted Russia being accorded that status. They have taken the view that Russia is possibly on the way to being a market-oriented economy Ч
but that it is too early to talk of our country joining a system with that kind of immunity-based" relationships. The fact is, however, that as of 1st April 2002 Russia has been formally accorded the status of "market-oriented economy".
The trend towards a market-oriented economy commenced with the disintegration of the Soviet Union. For 70 ye
ars the country had been run according to the dictates of totalitarian economics. The Soviet Union's economy was directed primarily towards strengthening the country's military might. The whole of industry was controlled and financed by the State: private
l
y-run concerns were out of the question. Private initiative was either eradicated or allowed to exist only in the tight grip of the State's ideology. Any other form of economic activity, apart from that of a "state enterprise" or (to a certain extent) "co
operatives'', was prosecuted. For the most part industrial products did not meet the demands of the consumer either in quality or in quantity. The isolation of the Soviet economy from that of the rest of the world also harmed it greatly.
This all resulted in the need to reform the economy by introducing the principles of "market economics" Ч
on the basis of "khozraschot" (plant-based financing) and "samookupayemosf" (product-based financing) within industry itself. During the 1980s a number of political c
hanges were carried out, but these proved ineffective because of opposition from conservative elements. However, the 1991 "putsch" forced Russia to break with its past. With the collapse of the USSR a great number of problems emerged in the economy of Rus
sia. The fact was that the economies of Russia and the constituent republics of the former USSR, together with those of the "socialist" countries of Eastern Europe, represented a unified system, fim»
its disintegration greatly multiplied those economic problems.
Major changes have taken place over the past; 10-16 years. Various economic projects have been put forward, and numer¬
ous economic reforms carried out. Some of these proved successful, others less so. The first symptoms of a market-oriented econom
y developing in Russia were the emergence of privately, run enterprises and the gradual spread of individual businesses. People with initiative and energy now had the chance not just to work, but to make money. Whereas the large industrial plants that had
been wholly State-maintained went into decline, small enterprises began to develop. Limited-liability companies and stock companies came into existence. "Shares” and "securities” were instituted Ч
which in itself was a further step in the direction of "a market economy”.
A securities market was created in Russia. Issuing of these securities was jointly facilitated by both State- and privately-owned industrial enterprises. "Securities”
included bonds, bills of exchange, cheques, stocks and shares, "futures", and a whole range of similar items. Organisations and concerns issuing securities are referred to as "emitters”. A person owning a "security”
is entitled to receive part of the stock company's profits in the form of dividends, and to have a say in the
running of the company, as well as having a right to part of any assets remaining after the company goes into liquidation. Trading in securities is conducted in stock-exchanges and by broking organisations.
One further principle forms the basis of "a market-oriented economy” Ч
namely, competition. The market mechanisms of supply and demand communicate the wishes of the consumer to the industrial producer, and through him to the supplier of production resources materials. Competition obliges companies to
go over to the most efficient production methods available. In a competitive market any companies unable to apply the most economical production methods are ousted by their competitors, using production methods of maximum efficiency.
Competition promote
s efficient distribution of resources. The competitive element in the market-oriented system channels resources into producing the commodities and services which society most needs. It dictates the use of the most effective methods of combining resources
for production purposes; it also facilitates the development and implementation of novel, more efficient production methods.
In the meantime, inadequate attention to the development of the market-oriented aspects of the economy and to the principle of free enterprise, as well as excessive preoccupation with financial
“pyramids", brought the country to an overwhelming financial crisis in August 1998. That crisis has set our country back five years. Only now is Russia's economy regaining the level it reached previously.
Russia's Foreign Policy ( Внеш
няя политика
России )
As is well known, in recent years substantial changes have taken place in Russia's Foreign policy. Compared to Soviet times, its recent policy reflects a very positive evolution. It is now characterised by a more balanced perception of "West" and "East
” indeed, the tenor of Russia's Foreign policy now corresponds better to what is in national interests.
In the wake of the collapse of the USSR, Russia's government prioritised democratic reforms and the creating of a market-orie
nted economy. The shaping of its foreign policy followed thereafter. Most significant among changes in its foreign policy, both then and now, has been the development of cooperation within the framework of "the CIS".
When the Soviet Union disintegrated,
Russia attempted to re-establish links between the former "Republics". An Agreement was signed on 8 December 1991 in the Belovezhsky Forest, Viskuli (seat of the Belorussian Government) Ч
by the leaders of Belarus, Ukraine, and the Russian Federation Ч instituting a "Commonwealth of Independent States". That Commonwealth now includes Ч all on an equal footing Ч
Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Moldova, Russia, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. The CIS Interparli
amentary Assembly is based in St. Petersburg. The States jointly resolve economic issues, as well as questions relating to security, counter-terrorism and measures against extremists.
Equally important Is Russia's foreign policy in regard to Western Eu
rope. The Soviet Union remained in a state of "cold war" with Western Europe and the United States for a considerable time. Over the past ten years our country has endeavoured to reciprocate the respect accorded us by Western countries and to conduct a di
a
logue with them. For example, the Russia-European Union "Paris Summit" adopted a Joint Declaration for increasing dialogue and cooperation in Europe on political issues and questions of security in Europe, The European Union is undoubtedly a promising par
tner for Russia Ч
partnership is indeed now the characteristic of our relations with principal European countries. An Agreement on partnership and cooperation between Russia and the European Union has been set in motion. Preparation of major projects for ec
onomic cooperation is under way, including the field of safety in the power-generating industry.
Relations with the United States are attuned to long-term interests in particular. Russo-American "summit" meetings aim to promote constructive and mutually
-beneficial bilateral relations and the strengthening of Russo-American coopera-tion on international questions. These include disarmament, non-proliferation, joint action to combat terrorism, as well as the extension of bilateral cooperation in various s
ectors Ч for example Russia joining the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
The "Shanghai Forum" was set up in 1996 Ч otherwise known as the "Shanghai Five". The leaders of Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia and Tadjikistan signed a joint declaration, iden
tifying spheres of cooperation under the aegis of this organisation. Not many years later Uzbekistan joined this grouping.
Leaders of the "Shanghai forum" hold meetings at regular intervals to settle topical matters relating to mutual trust in the milit
ary field in frontier regions, mutual arms and force reductions in frontier regions also, and the extention of cooperation in regional security and also of commercial and economic interaction.
The guiding principle of Russia's foreign policy at the pres
ent time has been enunciated by President Vladimir Putin as follows: "Clear delineation of our national priorities, pragmatism, and economic efficiency."
Saint Petersburg
St. Petersburg is the second largest city in Russia and one of the most beautifu
l cities in the world. It was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great as the "Window on Europe St. Petersburg was the capital of Russia from 1712 till 1918.
The city was built on the swampy land at the mouth of the River Neva. Prominent European and Russian architects worked here. The new capital grew rapidly in wealth and beauty.
When World War I began in 1914, the German-sounding name St. Petersburg was changed to Petrograd. After the October Revolution the city was renamed in honour of Lenin. In 1991 th
e old name of St. Petersburg was returned to the city.
During the Great Patriotic War the city suffered a great deal. The German armies laid siege to it in 1941, and for the next two years and a half the city was cut off from the rest of the country. No
food could be brought in, and people died of starvation. Daily shelling and air raids destroyed parts of the city. Thousands of people were killed. Rebuilding took years.
Now St. Petersburg is an industrial, cultural and scientific centre. There are ov
er 80 museums, more than 20 theatres, a lot of exhibitions, clubs, universities, colleges, schools and parks. The Alexandrinski Drama Theatre, the Bolshoi Drama Theatre, the Mariinsky Theatre of Opera and Ballet are pearls of the Russian art.
In St. Pet
ersburg there are a lot of parks and gardens where citizens spend their free time. The Summer Garden is the oldest and most fascinating park. Rare trees, bushes and flowers grow there. Beautiful marble statues made by Italian sculptors and a famous cast i
ron grille decorate the Summer Garden. There is a bronze monument to the prominent Russian writer of fables Ivan Krylov (by sculptor Klodt) in the Summer Garden.
St. Petersburg is famous for its magnificent architectural ensembles of the 18th and 19th ce
nturies. The city began with the Peter and Paul Portress built to protect the Neva banks from Swedish invasion. Later Domeniko Trezzini, the famous Swiss architect, reconstructed the fortress. It became a prison. Now it is a museum. Trezzini erected the P
eter and Paul Cathedral here, and Russian tsars were buried in it.
The most famous square in the city is the Palace Square with its magnificent ensemble. Here one can see the Winter Palace built by Rastrelli. Till the revolution it was the residence of t
he Russian csars. Now the Winter Palace and four other buildings are occupied by the Hermitage, one of the oldest art museums in Russia. There one can see masterpieces of outstanding artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Rembrandt, Velazquez and other uniq
ue works of art.
The Russian Museum is located in the Mikhailovsky Palace, designed by Rossi. Marvellous paintings by the famous Russian artists: Tropinin, Repin, Bryullov, Fedotov, Surikov, Serov; the works of sculptors: Rastrelli, Shubin, Antokolsky are exhibited here.
The streets and squares in St. Petersburg are very beautiful. Nevsky Prospect is the main street of the city, where there are amazing buildings, shops, hotels and the remarkable Kazan Cathedral (by Voronikhin) with a colonnade and monu
ments to M. Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly. Here in the prospect one can see the magnificent building of the Admiralty (by Zakharov) and the ensemble of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. Famous Russian writers, painters, composers and actors were buried in the La
vra.
Majestic palaces, cathedrals, churches and other buildings, built by famous architects, such as: palaces of Stroganov, Menshikov, Anichkov, and St. Isaac's Cathedral, erected by Montferrand, decorate St. Petersburg.
The city is often called the Venice of the North because there are 65 rivers and canals with artistically decorated cast iron bridges. One of the most beautiful is the Anichkov Bridge.
Citizens and tourists enjoy visiting the suburbs of St Petersburg: Petergof, Pushkin, Pavlovsk with their wonderful palaces, parks and fountains.
St. Petersburg inspired many of our great poets, writers, painters, sculptors, composers and actors. Much of the life and work of Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tchaikovsky, Repin and Kramskoi was connected with the city.
3. Выдающиеся люди России
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711-1765) (1) Михаил Ломоносов
Mikhail Lomonosov is the father of the Russian science and one of the most famous universities in the world.
Lomonosov was born in 1711 in Arkhangelsk province. He be
gan to read when he was a little boy. He always wanted to study and when he was nineteen he went to Moscow. He entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and six years later, in 1736, he was sent abroad to complete his studies in Chemistry and mining. Lomonos
ov worked hard and became a great scientist. He was the first Russian academician; Lomonosov
opened the first Russian chemistry lab. He was a physicist, a painter, an astronomer, a geographer, a historian and a statesman. In 1755 Mikhail Lomonosov
founded Moscow University which is now Moscow State University named after him. Mikhail made research in electricity, gravity and the character of colour.
Lomonosov was also the author of many odes and poems. He also published a lot of scientific works, including the first book on Russian grammar.
Lomonosov died in 1765 but people still remember him.
================================
Mikhail Lomonosov (2)
Mikhail Lomonosov was born in 1711 in the family of a fisherman in the northern coastal village of Denisovka
not far from Archangelsk.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
art going to school. First they go to primary school where they learn to read, write and count. Primary school finishes in the 3-rd form. Then pupils go to secondary school. After the 9-th form pupils take school exams and get a school certificate. After
it they can choose either to stay at school or go to a college to get a profession. Most pupils stay at school and finish it with a school diploma which allows them to enter an institution of higher education.
After finishing school pupils can go on to h
igher education. There are a lot of institutes and universities in Russia. They offer various departments which an entrant can choose according to his or her abilities. It is difficult to enter an institute. Entrants should attend university courses and t
h
en pass entrance exams. Nowadays a new examination system is being introduced. The so-called General State Exam allows pupils to enter any Russian university if they get good and excellent marks for it. This system hasn't been settled yet, but in some reg
ions of Russia it works already. Pupils take this examination after the 11-th form.
Students in Russian universities usually have five years of studies. At the end of every semester students have an examination session and take exams. If students pass th
e exams well they get a scholarship paid by the government. In most universities and institutes graduates have to pass State exams and defend their final project. After graduating from an institution of higher education they can continue studies and enter
a post-graduate school. After defending a dissertation they get a Master's Degree. In medical universities students usually study for 6 years.
=================================
Education in Russian Federation (2)
In Russian Federation children begin goi
ng to school at the age of seven. First they study at the elementary school. It lasts three or four years. At the elementary school children get the elementary education, they learn to read, write and count. From the fifth form the secondary education beg
i
ns. Children begin to learn different subjects, such as literature, chemistry, physics, biology, computing, foreign languages and so on. The nine-year secondary education is compulsory in our country, but after completing the nine-year schooling pupils fa
c
e the first serious decision in their lives. They have to decide either to continue their studies in the tenth and eleventh forms at a general secondary school, or to transfer to specialized colleges, that is to say, choose a particular career. Colleges g
i
ve young people a secondary education plus trade training. This means that after finishing a college they are educated and financially independent, able to go straight to a job. Except general secondary schools there are a lot of specialized schools, wher
e more attention is paid to a particular subject, mostly to a foreign language. Besides, there are many private schools now, where the education is not free of charge»
After finishing school or college young people may enter institute or university to get the higher education. After finishing the fourth course they get the bachelor's degree and after graduating from the postgraduate course Ч
the master's degree. To study is not an easy thing, of course, but nowadays it is quite necessary to be highly skilled and educated specialist.
Russian Sports
There are many popular kinds of sport in Russia. They are: hockey, skating, figure skating, skiing, football, swimming, running, judo and others. There are many stadiums, sport clubs, gyms and swimming-pools now
. Many national and international matches and championships take place in Russia. The most important sports events are broadcast live from the stadiums. Numerous people come to watch the games, others prefer to do this at home watching special sports chan
nels.
Water kinds of sport are popular in our country. These include swimming, diving, water skiing and boating. Fishing is very popular in all parts of Russia, too.
Football is one of the most popular sports in the country. There are several football clubs and football fans not only come to watch matches, but play football themselves.
Hockey is very popular, too.
Russia is famous for its chess players, tennis players and figure-skaters. At the 2006 Turin Olympic Games our country won several gold
medals in figure skating.
Physical education is one of the main subjects in Russian schools now. During the lessons pupils play different sports games, take part in school, district and city sports competitions.
Such sports activities as bowling and billiards have become very popular with the Russians, especially young ones. Such indoor games are played in sports centres and clubs.
Even though many Russian people do not have time for going in for sport, they still find some hours to do sports activities.
Russia
The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies about one seventh of the earth's surface. Russia covers the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia. Its total area is about 17 million square kilometer
s. The country is washed by 12 seas of 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic and the Atlantic. In the south Russia borders on China, Mongolia, Korea, Kazakhstan, Georgia and Azerbaijan. In the west it borders on Norway, Finland, the Baltic States, Belorussia,
and the Ukraine. It also has a sea border with the USA.
The population of Russia is 145.5 million people. 83 per cent are Russians. There are 1030 towns and cities in Russia. Moscow is the capital and the biggest city with a population of about 9 milli
on people.
There is hardly a country in the world where such a variety of scenery and vegetation can be found. We have steppes in the south, plains and forests in the central region, tundra and taiga in the north, highlands and deserts in the east.
Russia is located on two plains. They are the Great Russian Plain and the West Siberian Lowland. There are several moun¬
tain chains on the territory of the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. The largest mountain chain, the Urals, separates Europe from Asia.
Russia is a land of long rivers and deep lakes. There are over two million rivers in our country. The broad Volga River system is of great historic, economic and cultural importance to the country. It became the cradle of such anci
ent towns as Vladimir, Tver, Yaroslavl, Kazan, and Nizhny Novgorod. Volga is Europe's biggest river. It runs into the Caspian Sea which is in fact the largest lake in the world. The main Siberian rivers Ч the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena Ч
flow from south to north. The Amur in the Par East flows into the Pacific Ocean.
Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world's deepest lake (1600 metres) is Lake Baikal. It is much smaller than the Baltic I Sea, but there is much more water in it than in the Baltic Se
a. The water in the lake is so clear that if you look down you can count the stones on the bottom.
Russia has one sixth of the world's forests. They are concen¬trated in the European north of the country, in Siberia and m the Far East.
Over the vast
territory of the country there are various types of climate, from arctic in the north to subtropical in the south. But the temperate zone with four seasons prevails. Winters are cold and windy with a lot of snow. Summers are rather hot and dry. In Siberia
the temperature in winter falls to 50 degrees below zero. The coldest registered temperature was 70 degrees.
The animal world in the north includes the walrus, the seal, the polar bear and the polar fox. In the central zone there are a lot of wolves and
foxes, hares and squirrels. The famous Russian furs come from the sable, mink and ermine. The brown bear of the Russian forests is a kind of symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral res
ources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamonds come from Siberia.
The Russian Federation is a Presidential Republic. The federal government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial.
The legislative powers are exercised by the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers: the Council of Federation and the State Duma. The executive power belongs to the government which is headed by the Prime Minister. The judicial branch is represente
d by the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and regional courts. All three branches are controlled by the President.
Today the flag of Russia is a three-coloured banner. The hymn of Russia is written by A. Alexandrov and S. Mikhalkov. A new national
emblem is the two-headed eagle, the most ancient symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamon
ds come from Siberia.
There are a lot of opportunities for our country to become one of the leading countries in the world. IТ
m sure that we, the younger generation, can do a lot to make Russia as strong and powerful as she used to be.
Russia Ч a Market-oriented Economy ( Рос
сия - страна
с рыночной
экономикой )
The assertion that Russia is a market-oriented economy has evoked doubt in the minds of many. The European Commission, Economics Ministers in various countries, and indeed numerous Russian econo
mists themselves, have resisted Russia being accorded that status. They have taken the view that Russia is possibly on the way to being a market-oriented economy Ч
but that it is too early to talk of our country joining a system with that kind of immunity-based" relationships. The fact is, however, that as of 1st April 2002 Russia has been formally accorded the status of "market-oriented economy".
The trend towards a market-oriented economy commenced with the disintegration of the Soviet Union. For 70 ye
ars the country had been run according to the dictates of totalitarian economics. The Soviet Union's economy was directed primarily towards strengthening the country's military might. The whole of industry was controlled and financed by the State: private
l
y-run concerns were out of the question. Private initiative was either eradicated or allowed to exist only in the tight grip of the State's ideology. Any other form of economic activity, apart from that of a "state enterprise" or (to a certain extent) "co
operatives'', was prosecuted. For the most part industrial products did not meet the demands of the consumer either in quality or in quantity. The isolation of the Soviet economy from that of the rest of the world also harmed it greatly.
This all resulted in the need to reform the economy by introducing the principles of "market economics" Ч
on the basis of "khozraschot" (plant-based financing) and "samookupayemosf" (product-based financing) within industry itself. During the 1980s a number of political c
hanges were carried out, but these proved ineffective because of opposition from conservative elements. However, the 1991 "putsch" forced Russia to break with its past. With the collapse of the USSR a great number of problems emerged in the economy of Rus
sia. The fact was that the economies of Russia and the constituent republics of the former USSR, together with those of the "socialist" countries of Eastern Europe, represented a unified system, fim»
its disintegration greatly multiplied those economic problems.
Major changes have taken place over the past; 10-16 years. Various economic projects have been put forward, and numer¬
ous economic reforms carried out. Some of these proved successful, others less so. The first symptoms of a market-oriented econom
y developing in Russia were the emergence of privately, run enterprises and the gradual spread of individual businesses. People with initiative and energy now had the chance not just to work, but to make money. Whereas the large industrial plants that had
been wholly State-maintained went into decline, small enterprises began to develop. Limited-liability companies and stock companies came into existence. "Shares” and "securities” were instituted Ч
which in itself was a further step in the direction of "a market economy”.
A securities market was created in Russia. Issuing of these securities was jointly facilitated by both State- and privately-owned industrial enterprises. "Securities”
included bonds, bills of exchange, cheques, stocks and shares, "futures", and a whole range of similar items. Organisations and concerns issuing securities are referred to as "emitters”. A person owning a "security”
is entitled to receive part of the stock company's profits in the form of dividends, and to have a say in the
running of the company, as well as having a right to part of any assets remaining after the company goes into liquidation. Trading in securities is conducted in stock-exchanges and by broking organisations.
One further principle forms the basis of "a market-oriented economy” Ч
namely, competition. The market mechanisms of supply and demand communicate the wishes of the consumer to the industrial producer, and through him to the supplier of production resources materials. Competition obliges companies to
go over to the most efficient production methods available. In a competitive market any companies unable to apply the most economical production methods are ousted by their competitors, using production methods of maximum efficiency.
Competition promote
s efficient distribution of resources. The competitive element in the market-oriented system channels resources into producing the commodities and services which society most needs. It dictates the use of the most effective methods of combining resources
for production purposes; it also facilitates the development and implementation of novel, more efficient production methods.
In the meantime, inadequate attention to the development of the market-oriented aspects of the economy and to the principle of free enterprise, as well as excessive preoccupation with financial
“pyramids", brought the country to an overwhelming financial crisis in August 1998. That crisis has set our country back five years. Only now is Russia's economy regaining the level it reached previously.
Russia's Foreign Policy ( Внеш
няя политика
России )
As is well known, in recent years substantial changes have taken place in Russia's Foreign policy. Compared to Soviet times, its recent policy reflects a very positive evolution. It is now characterised by a more balanced perception of "West" and "East
” indeed, the tenor of Russia's Foreign policy now corresponds better to what is in national interests.
In the wake of the collapse of the USSR, Russia's government prioritised democratic reforms and the creating of a market-orie
nted economy. The shaping of its foreign policy followed thereafter. Most significant among changes in its foreign policy, both then and now, has been the development of cooperation within the framework of "the CIS".
When the Soviet Union disintegrated,
Russia attempted to re-establish links between the former "Republics". An Agreement was signed on 8 December 1991 in the Belovezhsky Forest, Viskuli (seat of the Belorussian Government) Ч
by the leaders of Belarus, Ukraine, and the Russian Federation Ч instituting a "Commonwealth of Independent States". That Commonwealth now includes Ч all on an equal footing Ч
Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Moldova, Russia, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. The CIS Interparli
amentary Assembly is based in St. Petersburg. The States jointly resolve economic issues, as well as questions relating to security, counter-terrorism and measures against extremists.
Equally important Is Russia's foreign policy in regard to Western Eu
rope. The Soviet Union remained in a state of "cold war" with Western Europe and the United States for a considerable time. Over the past ten years our country has endeavoured to reciprocate the respect accorded us by Western countries and to conduct a di
a
logue with them. For example, the Russia-European Union "Paris Summit" adopted a Joint Declaration for increasing dialogue and cooperation in Europe on political issues and questions of security in Europe, The European Union is undoubtedly a promising par
tner for Russia Ч
partnership is indeed now the characteristic of our relations with principal European countries. An Agreement on partnership and cooperation between Russia and the European Union has been set in motion. Preparation of major projects for ec
onomic cooperation is under way, including the field of safety in the power-generating industry.
Relations with the United States are attuned to long-term interests in particular. Russo-American "summit" meetings aim to promote constructive and mutually
-beneficial bilateral relations and the strengthening of Russo-American coopera-tion on international questions. These include disarmament, non-proliferation, joint action to combat terrorism, as well as the extension of bilateral cooperation in various s
ectors Ч for example Russia joining the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
The "Shanghai Forum" was set up in 1996 Ч otherwise known as the "Shanghai Five". The leaders of Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia and Tadjikistan signed a joint declaration, iden
tifying spheres of cooperation under the aegis of this organisation. Not many years later Uzbekistan joined this grouping.
Leaders of the "Shanghai forum" hold meetings at regular intervals to settle topical matters relating to mutual trust in the milit
ary field in frontier regions, mutual arms and force reductions in frontier regions also, and the extention of cooperation in regional security and also of commercial and economic interaction.
The guiding principle of Russia's foreign policy at the pres
ent time has been enunciated by President Vladimir Putin as follows: "Clear delineation of our national priorities, pragmatism, and economic efficiency."
Saint Petersburg
St. Petersburg is the second largest city in Russia and one of the most beautifu
l cities in the world. It was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great as the "Window on Europe St. Petersburg was the capital of Russia from 1712 till 1918.
The city was built on the swampy land at the mouth of the River Neva. Prominent European and Russian architects worked here. The new capital grew rapidly in wealth and beauty.
When World War I began in 1914, the German-sounding name St. Petersburg was changed to Petrograd. After the October Revolution the city was renamed in honour of Lenin. In 1991 th
e old name of St. Petersburg was returned to the city.
During the Great Patriotic War the city suffered a great deal. The German armies laid siege to it in 1941, and for the next two years and a half the city was cut off from the rest of the country. No
food could be brought in, and people died of starvation. Daily shelling and air raids destroyed parts of the city. Thousands of people were killed. Rebuilding took years.
Now St. Petersburg is an industrial, cultural and scientific centre. There are ov
er 80 museums, more than 20 theatres, a lot of exhibitions, clubs, universities, colleges, schools and parks. The Alexandrinski Drama Theatre, the Bolshoi Drama Theatre, the Mariinsky Theatre of Opera and Ballet are pearls of the Russian art.
In St. Pet
ersburg there are a lot of parks and gardens where citizens spend their free time. The Summer Garden is the oldest and most fascinating park. Rare trees, bushes and flowers grow there. Beautiful marble statues made by Italian sculptors and a famous cast i
ron grille decorate the Summer Garden. There is a bronze monument to the prominent Russian writer of fables Ivan Krylov (by sculptor Klodt) in the Summer Garden.
St. Petersburg is famous for its magnificent architectural ensembles of the 18th and 19th ce
nturies. The city began with the Peter and Paul Portress built to protect the Neva banks from Swedish invasion. Later Domeniko Trezzini, the famous Swiss architect, reconstructed the fortress. It became a prison. Now it is a museum. Trezzini erected the P
eter and Paul Cathedral here, and Russian tsars were buried in it.
The most famous square in the city is the Palace Square with its magnificent ensemble. Here one can see the Winter Palace built by Rastrelli. Till the revolution it was the residence of t
he Russian csars. Now the Winter Palace and four other buildings are occupied by the Hermitage, one of the oldest art museums in Russia. There one can see masterpieces of outstanding artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Rembrandt, Velazquez and other uniq
ue works of art.
The Russian Museum is located in the Mikhailovsky Palace, designed by Rossi. Marvellous paintings by the famous Russian artists: Tropinin, Repin, Bryullov, Fedotov, Surikov, Serov; the works of sculptors: Rastrelli, Shubin, Antokolsky are exhibited here.
The streets and squares in St. Petersburg are very beautiful. Nevsky Prospect is the main street of the city, where there are amazing buildings, shops, hotels and the remarkable Kazan Cathedral (by Voronikhin) with a colonnade and monu
ments to M. Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly. Here in the prospect one can see the magnificent building of the Admiralty (by Zakharov) and the ensemble of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. Famous Russian writers, painters, composers and actors were buried in the La
vra.
Majestic palaces, cathedrals, churches and other buildings, built by famous architects, such as: palaces of Stroganov, Menshikov, Anichkov, and St. Isaac's Cathedral, erected by Montferrand, decorate St. Petersburg.
The city is often called the Venice of the North because there are 65 rivers and canals with artistically decorated cast iron bridges. One of the most beautiful is the Anichkov Bridge.
Citizens and tourists enjoy visiting the suburbs of St Petersburg: Petergof, Pushkin, Pavlovsk with their wonderful palaces, parks and fountains.
St. Petersburg inspired many of our great poets, writers, painters, sculptors, composers and actors. Much of the life and work of Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tchaikovsky, Repin and Kramskoi was connected with the city.
3. Выдающиеся люди России
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711-1765) (1) Михаил Ломоносов
Mikhail Lomonosov is the father of the Russian science and one of the most famous universities in the world.
Lomonosov was born in 1711 in Arkhangelsk province. He be
gan to read when he was a little boy. He always wanted to study and when he was nineteen he went to Moscow. He entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and six years later, in 1736, he was sent abroad to complete his studies in Chemistry and mining. Lomonos
ov worked hard and became a great scientist. He was the first Russian academician; Lomonosov
opened the first Russian chemistry lab. He was a physicist, a painter, an astronomer, a geographer, a historian and a statesman. In 1755 Mikhail Lomonosov
founded Moscow University which is now Moscow State University named after him. Mikhail made research in electricity, gravity and the character of colour.
Lomonosov was also the author of many odes and poems. He also published a lot of scientific works, including the first book on Russian grammar.
Lomonosov died in 1765 but people still remember him.
================================
Mikhail Lomonosov (2)
Mikhail Lomonosov was born in 1711 in the family of a fisherman in the northern coastal village of Denisovka
not far from Archangelsk.
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